A criminal turns state's evidence by admitting guilt and testifying as a witness (also called crown witness[1]) for the state against his/her associate(s) or accomplice(s),[2] often in exchange for leniency in sentencing or immunity from prosecution.[3] The testimony of a witness who testifies against co-conspirator(s) may be important evidence.[3]
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth realms, the term is to turn Queen's or King's evidence, depending on the gender of the reigning monarch.[4] The term "turning approver" or "turn king's approver" was also historically used, and is still used in India and Pakistan; an approver "not only admitted his own guilt to a crime but also incriminated his accomplices both past and present" in exchange for avoiding a death sentence (and obtaining a lesser penalty, such as life imprisonment or abjuration of the realm) or improving prison conditions.[5] It has its origins in the 16th century, and allowed a person to become a crown witness and avoid pleading guilty.[6] Even at this early stage, the courts saw crown witness testimony as less reliable than other evidence, because it was encouraged in return for better treatment before the law. In 1751, regulations were introduced, stipulating that crown witness testimony should be corroborated with independent, third-party evidence.[7] Crown witnesses were also used to testify against the IRA during the Northern Ireland conflict. These crown witnesses were called the supergrasses.[8]
United States
The justice system of the United States of America has used the crown witness system since the Supreme Court approved its use in the Whiskey Cases in 1878, if not earlier.[9] In American parlance, a defendant who agrees to cooperate with prosecutors and give information against co-conspirators (often those with greater culpability) is also said to flip.[3][10][11][12] Witnesses who have turned state's evidence have been important in organized crime cases in the United States, such as those against the American Mafia. The first mafiosi who turned state's evidence, such as Joseph Valachi and Jimmy Fratianno, did so in response to threats on their life from Mafia associates; later cooperators were motivated to cooperate in order to avoid heavy sentences, such as those provided for under the RICO Act. Some who turned state's evidence were permitted to participate in the Witness Security Program (WITSEC).[13] Among the highest-ranking Mafia members to ever turn state's evidence was Salvatore Gravano ("Sammy the Bull"), an underboss of the Gambino crime family who pleaded guilty to 19 murders and agreed to testify against family boss John Gotti, and as a result Gravano was sentenced to 20 years whilst Gotti was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1992.[14] Joseph Massino was also the first boss of one of the Five Families in New York City to turn state's evidence.[15]
The incentives to turn state's evidence, or to not to do so, are explored in the famous prisoner's dilemma, created by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher.[16]
Germany
A crown witness style system has operated in Germany since the RAF trials in the 1970s. The Justice Minister at that time, Diether Posser, wanted to enable witnesses to testify in return for a lenient sentence if there was little chance of successfully prosecuting a criminal. Four attempts were made to introduce the system to anti terror legislation, but it was not included in the 1976 legislation.[17] Additionally, Germany lacked a witness protection program such as that found in the United States of America, which enabled the murder of Ulrich Schmücker, a witness who testified against his accomplices.[18] Another crown witness, Karl-Heinz Ruhland, recanted his testimony, as he initially did not receive protection from the state.[18] The treatment crown witnesses received at this time was viewed as illegal by the media, but necessary by the prosecution.[19] In 1981, Germany introduced a "small crown witness rule" in drug related trials which permitted a lower sentence for witnesses who turned state's evidence.[20] In 1989, during the Government of Helmut Kohl, Germany introduced a law effectively called the "crown witness rule" which enabled witnesses in terror related cases to turn state's evidence. Initially only valid until 1992,[21] it was extended several times[22] until it was abolished in 1999.[23] From 2000 onwards there was a law that lowered the sentence of a witness who came to an agreement with the prosecution in trials concerning money-laundering, but it was not called a crown witness rule.[24] In 2009 a new crown witness rule came into force and since then, witnesses in a wider range of cases have been allowed to become a crown witnesses.
| This article uses material from the Wikipedia article Metasyntactic variable, which is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License. |